Tarihi, da nasarorin da Gensis Khan
Da gaskiyar Mongols suka fara kamanninsa a tarihi da Genghis Khan ?emujin cewa, "Wane bajintar da na Genghis Khan (sashensu ya dace ni" a cikin 1206, a lokacin da gamuwa da cikakkiyar Mongols (ce quriltai, ya gaggauta, ya ba da hadin kai ga fluid nomadic duniya da suke zaune a steppes da Mongolia bak'uncinka, da iko ga iyalan Mongols sanya wa Kereit biyu da Naiman. Ga shi, mun fanso halittar jasaq, sa'amurana abin da ya kamata regulate d'abi'dukan Isra'ila, a daidai da aristocratic fasali da k'ungiya. Da sojoji keke da bai cika yin magana da k'arfin aiki k'warai da gaske, da wasu na gargajiya na mobility nomadic hari, yana sandarewa horo, Mongols apprestarono ka sa'an nan ya yi yak'i da babbar yarda da sunan d'ansa a shiyyar da steppes . babban buri ne da aka yi, ba shakka daga dukiya da Sin, wadda aka sa'an nan ya kasu biyu jihohin Arewa, a waje ya shafi lamarin Jurcin da kudancin gefen rera. Bayan da intake na Beijing (1215), sai dai, yawan k'wararrun da wahalhalun da har yanzu ba a Mongols gamu da sieges da birane masu garu da bukatar rufe da kafad'a kafin yin aikin da na k'asar sai umurci, ya kori Genghis Khan zuwa fansarki ya fita daga arewacin Sin ya juya wajen yamma. A cikin 'yan shekarun da sojoji Mongolian ta dangana har ya zuwa Caucasus, bayan da ya haye dukan tsakiyar Asiya da farfashe Musulmi mulkin Khwarizm, wanda su ka had'a da Transoxiana Corasmia, kuma na Farisa da Afghanistan. Wani mummunan turjewa ya fashe da systematic amfani da asar soweto da looting intimidating abin da mutanen da dukan wannan aikin safiyon, da Mongolian expansion. A Mongolia, Genghis Khan ya shirya wa majalisar tanguto na Hsi Hsia, ambaliyar ruwa ta Chinese lardin Gansu, a yayin wannan kamfe har ya mutu a 18 ga Agusta, 1227. Aikin mahukuncin rantsuwa da Genghis Khan ya ci gaba da halinku. A k'ark'ashin terzogenito Ögödei suka bauta wa dukan arewacin Sin (1234) da Koriya (1236), da sojoji da Batu, d'an d'an'Genghis Khan hak'oranta Rasha, Poland da Hungary 1236-41 (1). A 1243, regent na Ögödei, ya hore mulkin Seljuk Jihar Asiya Sassauk'an, a zamanin Möngka 1251-59 (3) An lalatar da abbaside caliphate, ya fara yi rantsuwa da Chinese Daular ta rera, ba wanda aka yi tunani da Qubilai, d'an'uwan Möngka, sai dai cikin 1276.
Binciken
Da Amazon da aka gano a lokacin mai fãsarwa tare da Rio Napo har ya zuwa tsaron arewacin tekun tlantika, zartas da tsakanin 1540 da 1542 da Francisco de Orellana, bisa ga al'adun mutane, ya kira domin ya gamu da shi a wannan yanki wani rukunin tayar da warlike mata sojoji. Da asalin suna iya dai a sau da ajali amasunu amerindio, "hayaniya da gizagizai dives". Da yawa cikas da climate, da tsire-tsire da tarko da baya, gama binciken kogin da matsa wa san bawanka da su binciko ba su yi, a 'yan kwanakin. A 1637 Pedro Teixeira hau kwas kogin har ya zuwa Rio Napo da tsakanin 1686 da 1724 da jesuit S. Fritz tafiya tare da wani babban sashen umurci rami. A matsayinsa na ci gaba da fara a xix k'arni binciken ya fi daidaita hukumar kulla da gudanar da naturalists da geographers, mun tuna da shipments da A. von Humboldt, sunan R. H. Schomburgk, W. Chandless, H. W. Bates da Ziyara H.Crevaux. Amma, ko bayan da na explorations Hamilton shinkafa, 1907-25, Kanar mai tasiri H. Fawcett (1925), B. Flornoy (1941), d'aya daga cikin biyar na Amazon rami mai unexplored. A shekarar 1999, Amazon Shipping majiya 96, shiryar da Polish explorer Ziyara H.Palkiewicz, ya identified a Nevado Quehuisha, a 5170 m altitude, a kudancin Peru, face kan mahad kogin da aka haife ni. Binciko tushen da Rio Rio da Amazons aka tabbatar da tsattsauran tsokaci da morphology a wannan yanki, daga binciken da kumbo ya photos, da Cibiyar Brazilian na fili cigaba da São José dos Campos.
Lacustrine rami a fuskar (8300 km², an sami amfani mafi tsoka saninsa 272 m daga kudu Amurka, arfia siyasa raba tsakanin Peru da Bolivia. Elongated a kasa. 180 gudanad da alk'ibla NW-SE, muguntarmu ta 3810 m na altitude a Jihar Filato Peruvian-Bolivian, tsattsaya a Cordillera Oriental da Andes. A gabar teku ya yi tsawo peninsulas da delimit da umurci creeks, mafi girma daga cikin wad'annan gab'a ce, da sauran rami a zirin tsawonsu, yana da sunan Tafkin Huiñaimarca. Da Titicaca, tectonic tushensu, zauna a farkon quaternary wad'annan al'amura a duniya da yawa don ta tokare d'akunan ridottasi, saboda dryness da climate da gudummowa alluvial rafuffukan da yawa, da Suches, Ayaviri, Lampa, Ilave, Colorado da Queca. Emissary na tafkin ne Rio Desaguadero, gabas da kudu da ita, a kan iyakar tsakanin Peru da Bolivia, da p> <p><br>kanta cikin Tekun Poopó. Kewayen Tafkin son yawo a climate sun fi mai sassaucin ra'ayi ya entail da altitude. Tare da jordan ya tsaya babban birnin Aymará, abin da ya ragu ban sha'awa kufai a Tiahuanaco Bolivian a karkarar da wasu na Pacific kewaye da lakes. Mai muhimmanci birane, yanzu Puno (1) Peru da Guaqui Bolivia (1). S.
Tsawon lokacin da Bolivia, 60 wsw gudanad da La Paz, a 3855 m a kudu gabashin Tafkin Titicaca. § Shi ne hedkwatar da sunan d'ansa ta biyu) da sunan d'ansa ira a tsakiyar Andes cewa, wa dukan yankin Andean daga k'arni na 12 zuwa k'arni tauhidi, a lokacin da ya bache. Kome ya san mutanen da aka gina shi. Da Incas da venerarono, sauran al'ummar da gumaka." § Cikin architectural complexes mai lura da pyramid na Acapama, inda mushe suranta kuma shafe da duwatsu, da mijina kofa na Kalasasaya, encloses daban-daban da dutse mutummutumai da monolithic portal ce kofa da rana, da kwarjini da frieze a bas-afuwar siffata da jumhuriyar tasiri da gefe 48. Da ceramic da aka ambata mafi tun fil azal ne umarnansa da polychrome kwalliya da geometric yi ko zoomorphic figures arfi stylised. A cikin mana idanu, daban-daban, da lbrãhim da shugaban puma, yanzu kuma a lokacin nan gaba, Tiahuanaco classic, da daga gabani, kwalliya da figures dabbar biyu ne. Da ceramic mafi marigayi, sai kad'an launuka, dukkan shagulgula dakushewar kwarjininsa na farko da fasali, domin uniformity a yi masa zane-zane, sa'an nan Ya kyautata surõrinku.
Janar tuke
K'ara. (Pl. m. , Akwai (xix k'arni na 12, daga chlorine+hydrogen+-ico. Hydrochloric nemi taimako sai shara mai guba, gida, sai empirical HCl fitattun motoci. Bisa ga mai shara mai guba zamani shi lak'abin, sunan hydrochloric za su nemi taimako sai, a dukan mai kama da makami, adana a gida rabad da ruwa ko solvents wadda ta dissociated a+ aya har ions da Cl?: gida HCl anhydrous zuciya, ba ionized, sai a maimakon denominarsi hydrogen chloride. Wannan bambanci aka cewa a galibi biyu gida wancan! saboda lalle ne shara mai guba biyu entities addini, to, ko a cikin dukiyoyinsu. Da hydrochloric nemi taimako sai an same shi a jihar 'yantar da tana tafasa wasu volcanoes da gastric matse na mammals, alhali kuwa suna yi saurin bazuwa a jikinsu da salts, chlorides.
Chemistry, aka sarrafa da amfani
Ya nemi taimako sai hydrochloricKuma da a kan wani k'arni dukkan shagulgula muhimmin bore, abubuwan da aka yi antacce fitar da hanya da ake kira fadarka sulphate, ta martani a tsakanin sulfuric nemi taimako sai da chloride sodium. Wannan nufi a muffles na jefa k'arfe da girmansu da kad'an meters da heating da tauri sodium chloride da kuma idan sun nemi taimako sai sulfuric: na farko, a wani gwargwadon yanayin zafi na 100-150°nanbã, ka sake molecule d'aya daga hydrochloric nemi taimako sai kuma wayewar molecule na hydrogensulphate Sodium, a rika gwargwadon yanayin zafi (500-550°(2), watau a jihar zubi, reacts dabi da na biyu na molecule sodium chloride wuyan sauran hydrochloric nemi taimako sai:
Wannan matar, wanda shi ne kashin farko da aka sarrafa da sodium carbonate da hanya Leblanc, zartas da amfanin gona, a gefen hydrochloric nemi taimako sai, sodium sulfate domin gun applications daban-daban. Shi ne a halin da ake ciki yanzu fifita ya fitar da hydrochloric nemi taimako sai a synthesis daga chlorine da hydrogen, da farko da ke samu, da wajen ciyad da k'era sodium hydroxide da electrolytic ne marinjaya. Da synthesis ke d'auke da shi a cikin furnaces antiacid na duniya, tutur a kai, da chlorine sada, kamar irin nozzles d'umi a hydrogen horarru. Da yawa daga hydrochloric nemi taimako sai su ma sun samu yau kamar byproduct da reactions daban-daban na chlorination na organic gidaje, misali da martani tsakanin benzene da chlorine tsara don su samu chlorobenzene da. A cikin wani al'amari, hydrochloric nemi taimako sai ya samu a jihar gaseous, sa'an nan kamanninsa cikin aqueous mafita absorbing da shi a cikin ruwa a kamar irin tuluna porcelain, ko fiye da modernly a coils da karfe resistant ya nemi taimako sai, sau da yawa ne tantalum. Da zuciya hydrochloric nemi taimako sai mai colorless gas, caustic da pungentissimo wari, ya watsa smokes arfi domin condensate atmospheric danshi, liquefies a atmospheric matsa wa -84,9 ºC da dankare amfanin cylinders da gobara wadda take etched ba ta nemi taimako sai idan wannan sosai, sun bushe, za a kai a cikin ruwa a jihar ambient gwargwadon yanayin zafi. Ruwa ya karbi babban kud'i hydrochloric nemi taimako sai, da ci gaba da zafi. Da saturated mafita a d'akin gwargwadon yanayin zafi, da wancan! saboda lalle ne da talakawa hydrochloric nemi taimako sai a ciniki, da yake cikinta kashi 37 kasa., a samu daga cikin fadarka zuwa sulfate daga alfasha ne kamar hakan karan tsana rawaya da launi k'azantar k'arfe da ke fuskar kasuwanci yãk'in sake da sunan muriatic nemi taimako sai. Heating wad'annan solutions ne, da farko da gaseous hydrochloric nemi taimako sai, sa'an nan kuma, sa'ad da rabo a cikin residual ruwa ya ragu zuwa kashi 20-15, garwayayye distilled unchanged azeotropy (1) a gwargwadon yanayin zafi na 121 ºC. Da hydrochloric nemi taimako sai a nemi taimako sai fortissimo: da aqueous solutions ne arfi corrosive, alia iyyun siyasa da epidermis, kuma suka yi tuk'uru mai hada karfe face cikakkiyar, transforming su a bisa chlorides da ci gaban hydrogen. Da hydrochloric nemi taimako sai ya yi amfani da aka sarrafa da plastics da synthetic rubbers Chloroprene (1), kamar reagent a analytical chemistry, kamar catalyst a reactions da yawa na organic chemistry, da shiri na karfe chlorides,
Tarihi, da wargajewar Daular Mongol
Da Qubilai, wanda a 1264 amince da jari daga Karakoram a Beijing, ya fara da dismemberment da Mongol daular, harabarsa da an riga an ajiye da Genghis Khan, a lokacin da ya kasu fiefdoms da territories nasara, dindindin su tare da 'ya'yansa maza. Kamar yadda Mongols suka kama ta fi sunan d'ansa da suka zo a tsai da, hukumar kula da ake bukata, sa'an nan a hankali da ke fuskanta ita ce a Har ma galibin. Haka kuma Qubilai underwent arfi da Chinese sunan d'ansa, a yayin da ikon Ubangiji dukan Mongols yana gaba da sauran rassan iyali gengiskhanide, ko da ya gane, ya ga mai rabo mai wasaq nominal. A d'aya hannun, daidai a lokacin nan sun bayyana da armashi fannonin da Mongolian expansion ya fi na farko kad'a hallaka da suka tafi tare. A karo na farko a tarihi ba, a'a, har zuwa gabas yana da nasaba da yamma da continuity manufa da iyali, banda k'arfafa kasuwanci, mai yiwuwa ne da gatura musayar ilimi da matasa da sabon sasanni da geographical adu. A wannan wurarenta da bayyana da jiragen na Marco Polo. Da pax mongolica dai yana da gajere ungiyoyin. Bayan Qubilai, da tarihi da Mongol Daular dominsu a na girmankai khanates da aka yi ta. Gidan Ilkhan da na Farisa zauna har zuwa 1336. Da Khanate na zinariya, da kayayyakin yak'insu Kudancin Rasha ta riga ta a karo hali na wargajewar, sa'ad da daga umurninsaa kan wanda Yake so daga bãyinsa k'arni na'am k'wararan bugunsa da Ivan da tsanani, amma Mongolian gidanka Crimea ya tsira a k'ark'ashin ottoman kare, har cikin wad'anda k'arni na 12. Game da Khanate daga zuriyar Cagatai, na biyu, d'an Genghis Khan, da ma ta had'a da Transoxiana Kashgaria, da kuma yankin da shiriyar Muhammadu, ta ratsa dismemberment daban-daban: Transoxiana fada cikin xiv k'arni na 12, a k'ark'ashin mulkin Timur, wanda ya yi ta tsakiyar mulkinsa, kuma a yankin na Ili da Cagataidi, yanzu turchizzati famarku, har da k'arni daga umurninsaa kan wanda Yake so daga bãyinsa, kuma a cikin Kashgaria har xvii k'arni na 12. Bayan da aka fito da Mongols daga Sin (1368), a gefen k'orama daban-daban da aka yi a Mongolia zuwa tebrin da gengiskhanide gurabun sana'o'i. Sauran ayyukan da wannan, har ya bayyana a characterised da zafin husuma da raba yammacin Mongols originating, a yankin na Baikal, da Mongols Oriental. A farkon rabin shekara ta goma sha biyar k'arni d'auki a yammacin Mongols: a gasar da Oirat gaggauta ya'ancan ayoyin wata daular da wa'adin har sau fiye da Chinese iyaka. Shi ya sa'an nan ka da Mongols a gabashin k'asashe, wadda take da zuriyar Genghis Khan, Dayan (1470-1543), ya gina bak'untaka da Mongolian guda. A zamanin da, d'an d'an Dayan, Altan Khan, a daga umurninsaa kan wanda Yake so daga bãyinsa k'arni tamanin da Mongols zuwa lamaismo tibetan. Da ya tashi daga Manciù a xvii k'arni Alamtacce a farkon sabuwar da aka ambata a tarihi da Mongols. Kafin a Manciù conquistassero Sin a 1644, da kabilar a gabashin Farfajiya Mongolia gane da mulki. A 1691 kuma Khalkha kabilan suka zauna da gindinsa Mongolia, fiye da ba a yi Oirat, su abokan gabanta kuma sun zama iyayengijinta Manciù. Da Oirat, wanda ya reconstituted mai k'arfi a jihar Zungaria da kwarin Ili ne a magadan galgajiya Mongolian Har ma galibin. Da yak'i da daular cino-manciù zauna har 1756-57, sa'an nan da nan. Da cino) igwa da manciù da dalilin da ya sa definitively Mongolian hari. Da ta ga zuriya Manciù tum, Mongolian aristocracy daga waje ya yi wa'azi Mongolia ta sami mulkin kanta, a yayin da farfajiya Mongolia sun zauna tare da Sin. Ga 'yan tarihi, ga farfajiya Mongolia da Mongolia.
Na adabi
Da na adabi Mongolian a Genghis Khan ya ragu har wa yau, bõne yasa (1) kuma hukunta bilik (1) da siffar fragmentary. Chronologically farkon takarda ujizoji ne da dutse na Genghis Khan na 1225. Haka kuma, har ma yana da epic da asalin Mongols da mulkokin Genghis Khan, Ögödei asiri tarihi na Mongols, zare a gundarin Mongolian a tsakiyar xiiith k'arni na 12, sabo da phonetic transcription Chinese, da ma'aikatan editorial na biyu da rabi na xiv k'arni na 12. Da Mongolian na adabi da xiv k'arni na 12, wanda jama'a da yawa monuments epigraphical da farko translations da Buddhist aiki daga Tibetan, da ba da taimako ga enrichment da Mongolian. (1) Wanda ya ce, "na zinariya." na Mongolian na adabi bala'i a XVII, wad'anda'arni na, da harshen biyu aiki mafi muhimmanci ne Button told oro na Lubdzandandzin na 1667 da tarihi na Mongolians na Sanang Sätsän na 1662. Daga ran sha k'arni na 12, shi ne na canon Tibetan kanjur, da kuma ba da gudunmawa daga yanzu Tibetan buddhist tanjur. Ya yi ta sha'awa kuma epic wurarensu da gunzar yak'i Gäsäi Khan, Tibetan tushensu, da fannin epic chinese. Daga ran sha k'arni na 12 zuwa k'arshen xix da Mongolian na adabi underwent da literary da linguistic a kasar Sin, aka fassara, adapted, reworked mafi shahara ayyukan classical Chinese daga tarihi na al'umman uku da kyaun Tatsuniyõyi ne na binciken Liao da mafarkin da Bahar Maliya daki. A farkon decades da chwa Alk'ur k'arni na 12 a Mongolia da ka bincike a maimakon literary harshen da daban dialects shakiyyai suke, haka kuma ci gaba da yawa autonomous literatures mai farin jini a hankali.
Sana'
Da intar sanin Mongolian hume yake samuwa nazarin architectural 4 sulhu ba ga xvii k'arni na 12, watau bayansa da tamanin da Mongols zuwa lamaismo (daga umurninsaa kan wanda Yake so daga bãyinsa k'arni na 12, wadda auna k'arfafa influences da Tibetan da Chinese. Haka kuma sharud sun gano ma a matalauta documentation na yi fenti da sculpture, kuke gõdhwa mai sana'addini da ciwo a k'irãzansu na influences. Mafi muhimmanci shi ne ya taka muhimmiyar rawar da Mongols a tsakanin gabas da yamma ta influences na Sin Yüan a hume iranica ilkhanid, mataimakin versa larabci da shutters a Chinese. A cikin wannan za ta labulen Mongolian d'and'ana bai ba su kawo ban sha'awa Kwabo #5,651 ne, muhimman ciniki. Bak'i mafi authentic d'and'ana Mongolia identifiable ne a cikin wasu kuke gõdhwa mai farin jini da sana'a, musamman ma a era na ado (3,023 k'awarsu.), da processing na hada karfe da janar inda cud'anya experiences rantsuwoyinku hume animalistica.
Tarihi, da nasarorin da Gensis Khan
Da gaskiyar Mongols suka fara kamanninsa a tarihi da Genghis Khan ?emujin cewa, "Wane bajintar da na Genghis Khan (sashensu ya dace ni" a cikin 1206, a lokacin da gamuwa da cikakkiyar Mongols (ce quriltai, ya gaggauta, ya ba da hadin kai ga fluid nomadic duniya da suke zaune a steppes da Mongolia bak'uncinka, da iko ga iyalan Mongols sanya wa Kereit biyu da Naiman. Ga shi, mun fanso halittar jasaq, sa'amurana abin da ya kamata regulate d'abi'dukan Isra'ila, a daidai da aristocratic fasali da k'ungiya. Da sojoji keke da bai cika yin magana da k'arfin aiki k'warai da gaske, da wasu na gargajiya na mobility nomadic hari, yana sandarewa horo, Mongols apprestarono ka sa'an nan ya yi yak'i da babbar yarda da sunan d'ansa a shiyyar da steppes . babban buri ne da aka yi, ba shakka daga dukiya da Sin, wadda aka sa'an nan ya kasu biyu jihohin Arewa, a waje ya shafi lamarin Jurcin da kudancin gefen rera. Bayan da intake na Beijing (1215), sai dai, yawan k'wararrun da wahalhalun da har yanzu ba a Mongols gamu da sieges da birane masu garu da bukatar rufe da kafad'a kafin yin aikin da na k'asar sai umurci, ya kori Genghis Khan zuwa fansarki ya fita daga arewacin Sin ya juya wajen yamma. A cikin 'yan shekarun da sojoji Mongolian ta dangana har ya zuwa Caucasus, bayan da ya haye dukan tsakiyar Asiya da farfashe Musulmi mulkin Khwarizm, wanda su ka had'a da Transoxiana Corasmia, kuma na Farisa da Afghanistan. Wani mummunan turjewa ya fashe da systematic amfani da asar soweto da looting intimidating abin da mutanen da dukan wannan aikin safiyon, da Mongolian expansion. A Mongolia, Genghis Khan ya shirya wa majalisar tanguto na Hsi Hsia, ambaliyar ruwa ta Chinese lardin Gansu, a yayin wannan kamfe har ya mutu a 18 ga Agusta, 1227. Aikin mahukuncin rantsuwa da Genghis Khan ya ci gaba da halinku. A k'ark'ashin terzogenito Ögödei suka bauta wa dukan arewacin Sin (1234) da Koriya (1236), da sojoji da Batu, d'an d'an'Genghis Khan hak'oranta Rasha, Poland da Hungary 1236-41 (1). A 1243, regent na Ögödei, ya hore mulkin Seljuk Jihar Asiya Sassauk'an, a zamanin Möngka 1251-59 (3) An lalatar da abbaside caliphate, ya fara yi rantsuwa da Chinese Daular ta rera, ba wanda aka yi tunani da Qubilai, d'an'uwan Möngka, sai dai cikin 1276.
Binciken
Da Amazon da aka gano a lokacin mai fãsarwa tare da Rio Napo har ya zuwa tsaron arewacin tekun tlantika, zartas da tsakanin 1540 da 1542 da Francisco de Orellana, bisa ga al'adun mutane, ya kira domin ya gamu da shi a wannan yanki wani rukunin tayar da warlike mata sojoji. Da asalin suna iya dai a sau da ajali amasunu amerindio, "hayaniya da gizagizai dives". Da yawa cikas da climate, da tsire-tsire da tarko da baya, gama binciken kogin da matsa wa san bawanka da su binciko ba su yi, a 'yan kwanakin. A 1637 Pedro Teixeira hau kwas kogin har ya zuwa Rio Napo da tsakanin 1686 da 1724 da jesuit S. Fritz tafiya tare da wani babban sashen umurci rami. A matsayinsa na ci gaba da fara a xix k'arni binciken ya fi daidaita hukumar kulla da gudanar da naturalists da geographers, mun tuna da shipments da A. von Humboldt, sunan R. H. Schomburgk, W. Chandless, H. W. Bates da Ziyara H.Crevaux. Amma, ko bayan da na explorations Hamilton shinkafa, 1907-25, Kanar mai tasiri H. Fawcett (1925), B. Flornoy (1941), d'aya daga cikin biyar na Amazon rami mai unexplored. A shekarar 1999, Amazon Shipping majiya 96, shiryar da Polish explorer Ziyara H.Palkiewicz, ya identified a Nevado Quehuisha, a 5170 m altitude, a kudancin Peru, face kan mahad kogin da aka haife ni. Binciko tushen da Rio Rio da Amazons aka tabbatar da tsattsauran tsokaci da morphology a wannan yanki, daga binciken da kumbo ya photos, da Cibiyar Brazilian na fili cigaba da São José dos Campos.
Lacustrine rami a fuskar (8300 km², an sami amfani mafi tsoka saninsa 272 m daga kudu Amurka, arfia siyasa raba tsakanin Peru da Bolivia. Elongated a kasa. 180 gudanad da alk'ibla NW-SE, muguntarmu ta 3810 m na altitude a Jihar Filato Peruvian-Bolivian, tsattsaya a Cordillera Oriental da Andes. A gabar teku ya yi tsawo peninsulas da delimit da umurci creeks, mafi girma daga cikin wad'annan gab'a ce, da sauran rami a zirin tsawonsu, yana da sunan Tafkin Huiñaimarca. Da Titicaca, tectonic tushensu, zauna a farkon quaternary wad'annan al'amura a duniya da yawa don ta tokare d'akunan ridottasi, saboda dryness da climate da gudummowa alluvial rafuffukan da yawa, da Suches, Ayaviri, Lampa, Ilave, Colorado da Queca. Emissary na tafkin ne Rio Desaguadero, gabas da kudu da ita, a kan iyakar tsakanin Peru da Bolivia, da p> <p><br>kanta cikin Tekun Poopó. Kewayen Tafkin son yawo a climate sun fi mai sassaucin ra'ayi ya entail da altitude. Tare da jordan ya tsaya babban birnin Aymará, abin da ya ragu ban sha'awa kufai a Tiahuanaco Bolivian a karkarar da wasu na Pacific kewaye da lakes. Mai muhimmanci birane, yanzu Puno (1) Peru da Guaqui Bolivia (1). S.
Tsawon lokacin da Bolivia, 60 wsw gudanad da La Paz, a 3855 m a kudu gabashin Tafkin Titicaca. § Shi ne hedkwatar da sunan d'ansa ta biyu) da sunan d'ansa ira a tsakiyar Andes cewa, wa dukan yankin Andean daga k'arni na 12 zuwa k'arni tauhidi, a lokacin da ya bache. Kome ya san mutanen da aka gina shi. Da Incas da venerarono, sauran al'ummar da gumaka." § Cikin architectural complexes mai lura da pyramid na Acapama, inda mushe suranta kuma shafe da duwatsu, da mijina kofa na Kalasasaya, encloses daban-daban da dutse mutummutumai da monolithic portal ce kofa da rana, da kwarjini da frieze a bas-afuwar siffata da jumhuriyar tasiri da gefe 48. Da ceramic da aka ambata mafi tun fil azal ne umarnansa da polychrome kwalliya da geometric yi ko zoomorphic figures arfi stylised. A cikin mana idanu, daban-daban, da lbrãhim da shugaban puma, yanzu kuma a lokacin nan gaba, Tiahuanaco classic, da daga gabani, kwalliya da figures dabbar biyu ne. Da ceramic mafi marigayi, sai kad'an launuka, dukkan shagulgula dakushewar kwarjininsa na farko da fasali, domin uniformity a yi masa zane-zane, sa'an nan Ya kyautata surõrinku.
Janar tuke
K'ara. (Pl. m. , Akwai (xix k'arni na 12, daga chlorine+hydrogen+-ico. Hydrochloric nemi taimako sai shara mai guba, gida, sai empirical HCl fitattun motoci. Bisa ga mai shara mai guba zamani shi lak'abin, sunan hydrochloric za su nemi taimako sai, a dukan mai kama da makami, adana a gida rabad da ruwa ko solvents wadda ta dissociated a+ aya har ions da Cl?: gida HCl anhydrous zuciya, ba ionized, sai a maimakon denominarsi hydrogen chloride. Wannan bambanci aka cewa a galibi biyu gida wancan! saboda lalle ne shara mai guba biyu entities addini, to, ko a cikin dukiyoyinsu. Da hydrochloric nemi taimako sai an same shi a jihar 'yantar da tana tafasa wasu volcanoes da gastric matse na mammals, alhali kuwa suna yi saurin bazuwa a jikinsu da salts, chlorides.
Chemistry, aka sarrafa da amfani
Ya nemi taimako sai hydrochloricKuma da a kan wani k'arni dukkan shagulgula muhimmin bore, abubuwan da aka yi antacce fitar da hanya da ake kira fadarka sulphate, ta martani a tsakanin sulfuric nemi taimako sai da chloride sodium. Wannan nufi a muffles na jefa k'arfe da girmansu da kad'an meters da heating da tauri sodium chloride da kuma idan sun nemi taimako sai sulfuric: na farko, a wani gwargwadon yanayin zafi na 100-150°nanbã, ka sake molecule d'aya daga hydrochloric nemi taimako sai kuma wayewar molecule na hydrogensulphate Sodium, a rika gwargwadon yanayin zafi (500-550°(2), watau a jihar zubi, reacts dabi da na biyu na molecule sodium chloride wuyan sauran hydrochloric nemi taimako sai:
Wannan matar, wanda shi ne kashin farko da aka sarrafa da sodium carbonate da hanya Leblanc, zartas da amfanin gona, a gefen hydrochloric nemi taimako sai, sodium sulfate domin gun applications daban-daban. Shi ne a halin da ake ciki yanzu fifita ya fitar da hydrochloric nemi taimako sai a synthesis daga chlorine da hydrogen, da farko da ke samu, da wajen ciyad da k'era sodium hydroxide da electrolytic ne marinjaya. Da synthesis ke d'auke da shi a cikin furnaces antiacid na duniya, tutur a kai, da chlorine sada, kamar irin nozzles d'umi a hydrogen horarru. Da yawa daga hydrochloric nemi taimako sai su ma sun samu yau kamar byproduct da reactions daban-daban na chlorination na organic gidaje, misali da martani tsakanin benzene da chlorine tsara don su samu chlorobenzene da. A cikin wani al'amari, hydrochloric nemi taimako sai ya samu a jihar gaseous, sa'an nan kamanninsa cikin aqueous mafita absorbing da shi a cikin ruwa a kamar irin tuluna porcelain, ko fiye da modernly a coils da karfe resistant ya nemi taimako sai, sau da yawa ne tantalum. Da zuciya hydrochloric nemi taimako sai mai colorless gas, caustic da pungentissimo wari, ya watsa smokes arfi domin condensate atmospheric danshi, liquefies a atmospheric matsa wa -84,9 ºC da dankare amfanin cylinders da gobara wadda take etched ba ta nemi taimako sai idan wannan sosai, sun bushe, za a kai a cikin ruwa a jihar ambient gwargwadon yanayin zafi. Ruwa ya karbi babban kud'i hydrochloric nemi taimako sai, da ci gaba da zafi. Da saturated mafita a d'akin gwargwadon yanayin zafi, da wancan! saboda lalle ne da talakawa hydrochloric nemi taimako sai a ciniki, da yake cikinta kashi 37 kasa., a samu daga cikin fadarka zuwa sulfate daga alfasha ne kamar hakan karan tsana rawaya da launi k'azantar k'arfe da ke fuskar kasuwanci yãk'in sake da sunan muriatic nemi taimako sai. Heating wad'annan solutions ne, da farko da gaseous hydrochloric nemi taimako sai, sa'an nan kuma, sa'ad da rabo a cikin residual ruwa ya ragu zuwa kashi 20-15, garwayayye distilled unchanged azeotropy (1) a gwargwadon yanayin zafi na 121 ºC. Da hydrochloric nemi taimako sai a nemi taimako sai fortissimo: da aqueous solutions ne arfi corrosive, alia iyyun siyasa da epidermis, kuma suka yi tuk'uru mai hada karfe face cikakkiyar, transforming su a bisa chlorides da ci gaban hydrogen. Da hydrochloric nemi taimako sai ya yi amfani da aka sarrafa da plastics da synthetic rubbers Chloroprene (1), kamar reagent a analytical chemistry, kamar catalyst a reactions da yawa na organic chemistry, da shiri na karfe chlorides,
Tarihi, da wargajewar Daular Mongol
Da Qubilai, wanda a 1264 amince da jari daga Karakoram a Beijing, ya fara da dismemberment da Mongol daular, harabarsa da an riga an ajiye da Genghis Khan, a lokacin da ya kasu fiefdoms da territories nasara, dindindin su tare da 'ya'yansa maza. Kamar yadda Mongols suka kama ta fi sunan d'ansa da suka zo a tsai da, hukumar kula da ake bukata, sa'an nan a hankali da ke fuskanta ita ce a Har ma galibin. Haka kuma Qubilai underwent arfi da Chinese sunan d'ansa, a yayin da ikon Ubangiji dukan Mongols yana gaba da sauran rassan iyali gengiskhanide, ko da ya gane, ya ga mai rabo mai wasaq nominal. A d'aya hannun, daidai a lokacin nan sun bayyana da armashi fannonin da Mongolian expansion ya fi na farko kad'a hallaka da suka tafi tare. A karo na farko a tarihi ba, a'a, har zuwa gabas yana da nasaba da yamma da continuity manufa da iyali, banda k'arfafa kasuwanci, mai yiwuwa ne da gatura musayar ilimi da matasa da sabon sasanni da geographical adu. A wannan wurarenta da bayyana da jiragen na Marco Polo. Da pax mongolica dai yana da gajere ungiyoyin. Bayan Qubilai, da tarihi da Mongol Daular dominsu a na girmankai khanates da aka yi ta. Gidan Ilkhan da na Farisa zauna har zuwa 1336. Da Khanate na zinariya, da kayayyakin yak'insu Kudancin Rasha ta riga ta a karo hali na wargajewar, sa'ad da daga umurninsaa kan wanda Yake so daga bãyinsa k'arni na'am k'wararan bugunsa da Ivan da tsanani, amma Mongolian gidanka Crimea ya tsira a k'ark'ashin ottoman kare, har cikin wad'anda k'arni na 12. Game da Khanate daga zuriyar Cagatai, na biyu, d'an Genghis Khan, da ma ta had'a da Transoxiana Kashgaria, da kuma yankin da shiriyar Muhammadu, ta ratsa dismemberment daban-daban: Transoxiana fada cikin xiv k'arni na 12, a k'ark'ashin mulkin Timur, wanda ya yi ta tsakiyar mulkinsa, kuma a yankin na Ili da Cagataidi, yanzu turchizzati famarku, har da k'arni daga umurninsaa kan wanda Yake so daga bãyinsa, kuma a cikin Kashgaria har xvii k'arni na 12. Bayan da aka fito da Mongols daga Sin (1368), a gefen k'orama daban-daban da aka yi a Mongolia zuwa tebrin da gengiskhanide gurabun sana'o'i. Sauran ayyukan da wannan, har ya bayyana a characterised da zafin husuma da raba yammacin Mongols originating, a yankin na Baikal, da Mongols Oriental. A farkon rabin shekara ta goma sha biyar k'arni d'auki a yammacin Mongols: a gasar da Oirat gaggauta ya'ancan ayoyin wata daular da wa'adin har sau fiye da Chinese iyaka. Shi ya sa'an nan ka da Mongols a gabashin k'asashe, wadda take da zuriyar Genghis Khan, Dayan (1470-1543), ya gina bak'untaka da Mongolian guda. A zamanin da, d'an d'an Dayan, Altan Khan, a daga umurninsaa kan wanda Yake so daga bãyinsa k'arni tamanin da Mongols zuwa lamaismo tibetan. Da ya tashi daga Manciù a xvii k'arni Alamtacce a farkon sabuwar da aka ambata a tarihi da Mongols. Kafin a Manciù conquistassero Sin a 1644, da kabilar a gabashin Farfajiya Mongolia gane da mulki. A 1691 kuma Khalkha kabilan suka zauna da gindinsa Mongolia, fiye da ba a yi Oirat, su abokan gabanta kuma sun zama iyayengijinta Manciù. Da Oirat, wanda ya reconstituted mai k'arfi a jihar Zungaria da kwarin Ili ne a magadan galgajiya Mongolian Har ma galibin. Da yak'i da daular cino-manciù zauna har 1756-57, sa'an nan da nan. Da cino) igwa da manciù da dalilin da ya sa definitively Mongolian hari. Da ta ga zuriya Manciù tum, Mongolian aristocracy daga waje ya yi wa'azi Mongolia ta sami mulkin kanta, a yayin da farfajiya Mongolia sun zauna tare da Sin. Ga 'yan tarihi, ga farfajiya Mongolia da Mongolia.
Na adabi
Da na adabi Mongolian a Genghis Khan ya ragu har wa yau, bõne yasa (1) kuma hukunta bilik (1) da siffar fragmentary. Chronologically farkon takarda ujizoji ne da dutse na Genghis Khan na 1225. Haka kuma, har ma yana da epic da asalin Mongols da mulkokin Genghis Khan, Ögödei asiri tarihi na Mongols, zare a gundarin Mongolian a tsakiyar xiiith k'arni na 12, sabo da phonetic transcription Chinese, da ma'aikatan editorial na biyu da rabi na xiv k'arni na 12. Da Mongolian na adabi da xiv k'arni na 12, wanda jama'a da yawa monuments epigraphical da farko translations da Buddhist aiki daga Tibetan, da ba da taimako ga enrichment da Mongolian. (1) Wanda ya ce, "na zinariya." na Mongolian na adabi bala'i a XVII, wad'anda'arni na, da harshen biyu aiki mafi muhimmanci ne Button told oro na Lubdzandandzin na 1667 da tarihi na Mongolians na Sanang Sätsän na 1662. Daga ran sha k'arni na 12, shi ne na canon Tibetan kanjur, da kuma ba da gudunmawa daga yanzu Tibetan buddhist tanjur. Ya yi ta sha'awa kuma epic wurarensu da gunzar yak'i Gäsäi Khan, Tibetan tushensu, da fannin epic chinese. Daga ran sha k'arni na 12 zuwa k'arshen xix da Mongolian na adabi underwent da literary da linguistic a kasar Sin, aka fassara, adapted, reworked mafi shahara ayyukan classical Chinese daga tarihi na al'umman uku da kyaun Tatsuniyõyi ne na binciken Liao da mafarkin da Bahar Maliya daki. A farkon decades da chwa Alk'ur k'arni na 12 a Mongolia da ka bincike a maimakon literary harshen da daban dialects shakiyyai suke, haka kuma ci gaba da yawa autonomous literatures mai farin jini a hankali.
Sana'
Da intar sanin Mongolian hume yake samuwa nazarin architectural 4 sulhu ba ga xvii k'arni na 12, watau bayansa da tamanin da Mongols zuwa lamaismo (daga umurninsaa kan wanda Yake so daga bãyinsa k'arni na 12, wadda auna k'arfafa influences da Tibetan da Chinese. Haka kuma sharud sun gano ma a matalauta documentation na yi fenti da sculpture, kuke gõdhwa mai sana'addini da ciwo a k'irãzansu na influences. Mafi muhimmanci shi ne ya taka muhimmiyar rawar da Mongols a tsakanin gabas da yamma ta influences na Sin Yüan a hume iranica ilkhanid, mataimakin versa larabci da shutters a Chinese. A cikin wannan za ta labulen Mongolian d'and'ana bai ba su kawo ban sha'awa Kwabo #5,651 ne, muhimman ciniki. Bak'i mafi authentic d'and'ana Mongolia identifiable ne a cikin wasu kuke gõdhwa mai farin jini da sana'a, musamman ma a era na ado (3,023 k'awarsu.), da processing na hada karfe da janar inda cud'anya experiences rantsuwoyinku hume animalistica.
Tarihi, da nasarorin da Gensis Khan
Da gaskiyar Mongols suka fara kamanninsa a tarihi da Genghis Khan ?emujin cewa, "Wane bajintar da na Genghis Khan (sashensu ya dace ni" a cikin 1206, a lokacin da gamuwa da cikakkiyar Mongols (ce quriltai, ya gaggauta, ya ba da hadin kai ga fluid nomadic duniya da suke zaune a steppes da Mongolia bak'uncinka, da iko ga iyalan Mongols sanya wa Kereit biyu da Naiman. Ga shi, mun fanso halittar jasaq, sa'amurana abin da ya kamata regulate d'abi'dukan Isra'ila, a daidai da aristocratic fasali da k'ungiya. Da sojoji keke da bai cika yin magana da k'arfin aiki k'warai da gaske, da wasu na gargajiya na mobility nomadic hari, yana sandarewa horo, Mongols apprestarono ka sa'an nan ya yi yak'i da babbar yarda da sunan d'ansa a shiyyar da steppes . babban buri ne da aka yi, ba shakka daga dukiya da Sin, wadda aka sa'an nan ya kasu biyu jihohin Arewa, a waje ya shafi lamarin Jurcin da kudancin gefen rera. Bayan da intake na Beijing (1215), sai dai, yawan k'wararrun da wahalhalun da har yanzu ba a Mongols gamu da sieges da birane masu garu da bukatar rufe da kafad'a kafin yin aikin da na k'asar sai umurci, ya kori Genghis Khan zuwa fansarki ya fita daga arewacin Sin ya juya wajen yamma. A cikin 'yan shekarun da sojoji Mongolian ta dangana har ya zuwa Caucasus, bayan da ya haye dukan tsakiyar Asiya da farfashe Musulmi mulkin Khwarizm, wanda su ka had'a da Transoxiana Corasmia, kuma na Farisa da Afghanistan. Wani mummunan turjewa ya fashe da systematic amfani da asar soweto da looting intimidating abin da mutanen da dukan wannan aikin safiyon, da Mongolian expansion. A Mongolia, Genghis Khan ya shirya wa majalisar tanguto na Hsi Hsia, ambaliyar ruwa ta Chinese lardin Gansu, a yayin wannan kamfe har ya mutu a 18 ga Agusta, 1227. Aikin mahukuncin rantsuwa da Genghis Khan ya ci gaba da halinku. A k'ark'ashin terzogenito Ögödei suka bauta wa dukan arewacin Sin (1234) da Koriya (1236), da sojoji da Batu, d'an d'an'Genghis Khan hak'oranta Rasha, Poland da Hungary 1236-41 (1). A 1243, regent na Ögödei, ya hore mulkin Seljuk Jihar Asiya Sassauk'an, a zamanin Möngka 1251-59 (3) An lalatar da abbaside caliphate, ya fara yi rantsuwa da Chinese Daular ta rera, ba wanda aka yi tunani da Qubilai, d'an'uwan Möngka, sai dai cikin 1276.
Binciken
Da Amazon da aka gano a lokacin mai fãsarwa tare da Rio Napo har ya zuwa tsaron arewacin tekun tlantika, zartas da tsakanin 1540 da 1542 da Francisco de Orellana, bisa ga al'adun mutane, ya kira domin ya gamu da shi a wannan yanki wani rukunin tayar da warlike mata sojoji. Da asalin suna iya dai a sau da ajali amasunu amerindio, "hayaniya da gizagizai dives". Da yawa cikas da climate, da tsire-tsire da tarko da baya, gama binciken kogin da matsa wa san bawanka da su binciko ba su yi, a 'yan kwanakin. A 1637 Pedro Teixeira hau kwas kogin har ya zuwa Rio Napo da tsakanin 1686 da 1724 da jesuit S. Fritz tafiya tare da wani babban sashen umurci rami. A matsayinsa na ci gaba da fara a xix k'arni binciken ya fi daidaita hukumar kulla da gudanar da naturalists da geographers, mun tuna da shipments da A. von Humboldt, sunan R. H. Schomburgk, W. Chandless, H. W. Bates da Ziyara H.Crevaux. Amma, ko bayan da na explorations Hamilton shinkafa, 1907-25, Kanar mai tasiri H. Fawcett (1925), B. Flornoy (1941), d'aya daga cikin biyar na Amazon rami mai unexplored. A shekarar 1999, Amazon Shipping majiya 96, shiryar da Polish explorer Ziyara H.Palkiewicz, ya identified a Nevado Quehuisha, a 5170 m altitude, a kudancin Peru, face kan mahad kogin da aka haife ni. Binciko tushen da Rio Rio da Amazons aka tabbatar da tsattsauran tsokaci da morphology a wannan yanki, daga binciken da kumbo ya photos, da Cibiyar Brazilian na fili cigaba da São José dos Campos.
Lacustrine rami a fuskar (8300 km², an sami amfani mafi tsoka saninsa 272 m daga kudu Amurka, arfia siyasa raba tsakanin Peru da Bolivia. Elongated a kasa. 180 gudanad da alk'ibla NW-SE, muguntarmu ta 3810 m na altitude a Jihar Filato Peruvian-Bolivian, tsattsaya a Cordillera Oriental da Andes. A gabar teku ya yi tsawo peninsulas da delimit da umurci creeks, mafi girma daga cikin wad'annan gab'a ce, da sauran rami a zirin tsawonsu, yana da sunan Tafkin Huiñaimarca. Da Titicaca, tectonic tushensu, zauna a farkon quaternary wad'annan al'amura a duniya da yawa don ta tokare d'akunan ridottasi, saboda dryness da climate da gudummowa alluvial rafuffukan da yawa, da Suches, Ayaviri, Lampa, Ilave, Colorado da Queca. Emissary na tafkin ne Rio Desaguadero, gabas da kudu da ita, a kan iyakar tsakanin Peru da Bolivia, da p> <p><br>kanta cikin Tekun Poopó. Kewayen Tafkin son yawo a climate sun fi mai sassaucin ra'ayi ya entail da altitude. Tare da jordan ya tsaya babban birnin Aymará, abin da ya ragu ban sha'awa kufai a Tiahuanaco Bolivian a karkarar da wasu na Pacific kewaye da lakes. Mai muhimmanci birane, yanzu Puno (1) Peru da Guaqui Bolivia (1). S.
Tsawon lokacin da Bolivia, 60 wsw gudanad da La Paz, a 3855 m a kudu gabashin Tafkin Titicaca. § Shi ne hedkwatar da sunan d'ansa ta biyu) da sunan d'ansa ira a tsakiyar Andes cewa, wa dukan yankin Andean daga k'arni na 12 zuwa k'arni tauhidi, a lokacin da ya bache. Kome ya san mutanen da aka gina shi. Da Incas da venerarono, sauran al'ummar da gumaka." § Cikin architectural complexes mai lura da pyramid na Acapama, inda mushe suranta kuma shafe da duwatsu, da mijina kofa na Kalasasaya, encloses daban-daban da dutse mutummutumai da monolithic portal ce kofa da rana, da kwarjini da frieze a bas-afuwar siffata da jumhuriyar tasiri da gefe 48. Da ceramic da aka ambata mafi tun fil azal ne umarnansa da polychrome kwalliya da geometric yi ko zoomorphic figures arfi stylised. A cikin mana idanu, daban-daban, da lbrãhim da shugaban puma, yanzu kuma a lokacin nan gaba, Tiahuanaco classic, da daga gabani, kwalliya da figures dabbar biyu ne. Da ceramic mafi marigayi, sai kad'an launuka, dukkan shagulgula dakushewar kwarjininsa na farko da fasali, domin uniformity a yi masa zane-zane, sa'an nan Ya kyautata surõrinku.
Janar tuke
K'ara. (Pl. m. , Akwai (xix k'arni na 12, daga chlorine+hydrogen+-ico. Hydrochloric nemi taimako sai shara mai guba, gida, sai empirical HCl fitattun motoci. Bisa ga mai shara mai guba zamani shi lak'abin, sunan hydrochloric za su nemi taimako sai, a dukan mai kama da makami, adana a gida rabad da ruwa ko solvents wadda ta dissociated a+ aya har ions da Cl?: gida HCl anhydrous zuciya, ba ionized, sai a maimakon denominarsi hydrogen chloride. Wannan bambanci aka cewa a galibi biyu gida wancan! saboda lalle ne shara mai guba biyu entities addini, to, ko a cikin dukiyoyinsu. Da hydrochloric nemi taimako sai an same shi a jihar 'yantar da tana tafasa wasu volcanoes da gastric matse na mammals, alhali kuwa suna yi saurin bazuwa a jikinsu da salts, chlorides.
Chemistry, aka sarrafa da amfani
Ya nemi taimako sai hydrochloricKuma da a kan wani k'arni dukkan shagulgula muhimmin bore, abubuwan da aka yi antacce fitar da hanya da ake kira fadarka sulphate, ta martani a tsakanin sulfuric nemi taimako sai da chloride sodium. Wannan nufi a muffles na jefa k'arfe da girmansu da kad'an meters da heating da tauri sodium chloride da kuma idan sun nemi taimako sai sulfuric: na farko, a wani gwargwadon yanayin zafi na 100-150°nanbã, ka sake molecule d'aya daga hydrochloric nemi taimako sai kuma wayewar molecule na hydrogensulphate Sodium, a rika gwargwadon yanayin zafi (500-550°(2), watau a jihar zubi, reacts dabi da na biyu na molecule sodium chloride wuyan sauran hydrochloric nemi taimako sai:
Wannan matar, wanda shi ne kashin farko da aka sarrafa da sodium carbonate da hanya Leblanc, zartas da amfanin gona, a gefen hydrochloric nemi taimako sai, sodium sulfate domin gun applications daban-daban. Shi ne a halin da ake ciki yanzu fifita ya fitar da hydrochloric nemi taimako sai a synthesis daga chlorine da hydrogen, da farko da ke samu, da wajen ciyad da k'era sodium hydroxide da electrolytic ne marinjaya. Da synthesis ke d'auke da shi a cikin furnaces antiacid na duniya, tutur a kai, da chlorine sada, kamar irin nozzles d'umi a hydrogen horarru. Da yawa daga hydrochloric nemi taimako sai su ma sun samu yau kamar byproduct da reactions daban-daban na chlorination na organic gidaje, misali da martani tsakanin benzene da chlorine tsara don su samu chlorobenzene da. A cikin wani al'amari, hydrochloric nemi taimako sai ya samu a jihar gaseous, sa'an nan kamanninsa cikin aqueous mafita absorbing da shi a cikin ruwa a kamar irin tuluna porcelain, ko fiye da modernly a coils da karfe resistant ya nemi taimako sai, sau da yawa ne tantalum. Da zuciya hydrochloric nemi taimako sai mai colorless gas, caustic da pungentissimo wari, ya watsa smokes arfi domin condensate atmospheric danshi, liquefies a atmospheric matsa wa -84,9 ºC da dankare amfanin cylinders da gobara wadda take etched ba ta nemi taimako sai idan wannan sosai, sun bushe, za a kai a cikin ruwa a jihar ambient gwargwadon yanayin zafi. Ruwa ya karbi babban kud'i hydrochloric nemi taimako sai, da ci gaba da zafi. Da saturated mafita a d'akin gwargwadon yanayin zafi, da wancan! saboda lalle ne da talakawa hydrochloric nemi taimako sai a ciniki, da yake cikinta kashi 37 kasa., a samu daga cikin fadarka zuwa sulfate daga alfasha ne kamar hakan karan tsana rawaya da launi k'azantar k'arfe da ke fuskar kasuwanci yãk'in sake da sunan muriatic nemi taimako sai. Heating wad'annan solutions ne, da farko da gaseous hydrochloric nemi taimako sai, sa'an nan kuma, sa'ad da rabo a cikin residual ruwa ya ragu zuwa kashi 20-15, garwayayye distilled unchanged azeotropy (1) a gwargwadon yanayin zafi na 121 ºC. Da hydrochloric nemi taimako sai a nemi taimako sai fortissimo: da aqueous solutions ne arfi corrosive, alia iyyun siyasa da epidermis, kuma suka yi tuk'uru mai hada karfe face cikakkiyar, transforming su a bisa chlorides da ci gaban hydrogen. Da hydrochloric nemi taimako sai ya yi amfani da aka sarrafa da plastics da synthetic rubbers Chloroprene (1), kamar reagent a analytical chemistry, kamar catalyst a reactions da yawa na organic chemistry, da shiri na karfe chlorides,
Tarihi, da wargajewar Daular Mongol
Da Qubilai, wanda a 1264 amince da jari daga Karakoram a Beijing, ya fara da dismemberment da Mongol daular, harabarsa da an riga an ajiye da Genghis Khan, a lokacin da ya kasu fiefdoms da territories nasara, dindindin su tare da 'ya'yansa maza. Kamar yadda Mongols suka kama ta fi sunan d'ansa da suka zo a tsai da, hukumar kula da ake bukata, sa'an nan a hankali da ke fuskanta ita ce a Har ma galibin. Haka kuma Qubilai underwent arfi da Chinese sunan d'ansa, a yayin da ikon Ubangiji dukan Mongols yana gaba da sauran rassan iyali gengiskhanide, ko da ya gane, ya ga mai rabo mai wasaq nominal. A d'aya hannun, daidai a lokacin nan sun bayyana da armashi fannonin da Mongolian expansion ya fi na farko kad'a hallaka da suka tafi tare. A karo na farko a tarihi ba, a'a, har zuwa gabas yana da nasaba da yamma da continuity manufa da iyali, banda k'arfafa kasuwanci, mai yiwuwa ne da gatura musayar ilimi da matasa da sabon sasanni da geographical adu. A wannan wurarenta da bayyana da jiragen na Marco Polo. Da pax mongolica dai yana da gajere ungiyoyin. Bayan Qubilai, da tarihi da Mongol Daular dominsu a na girmankai khanates da aka yi ta. Gidan Ilkhan da na Farisa zauna har zuwa 1336. Da Khanate na zinariya, da kayayyakin yak'insu Kudancin Rasha ta riga ta a karo hali na wargajewar, sa'ad da daga umurninsaa kan wanda Yake so daga bãyinsa k'arni na'am k'wararan bugunsa da Ivan da tsanani, amma Mongolian gidanka Crimea ya tsira a k'ark'ashin ottoman kare, har cikin wad'anda k'arni na 12. Game da Khanate daga zuriyar Cagatai, na biyu, d'an Genghis Khan, da ma ta had'a da Transoxiana Kashgaria, da kuma yankin da shiriyar Muhammadu, ta ratsa dismemberment daban-daban: Transoxiana fada cikin xiv k'arni na 12, a k'ark'ashin mulkin Timur, wanda ya yi ta tsakiyar mulkinsa, kuma a yankin na Ili da Cagataidi, yanzu turchizzati famarku, har da k'arni daga umurninsaa kan wanda Yake so daga bãyinsa, kuma a cikin Kashgaria har xvii k'arni na 12. Bayan da aka fito da Mongols daga Sin (1368), a gefen k'orama daban-daban da aka yi a Mongolia zuwa tebrin da gengiskhanide gurabun sana'o'i. Sauran ayyukan da wannan, har ya bayyana a characterised da zafin husuma da raba yammacin Mongols originating, a yankin na Baikal, da Mongols Oriental. A farkon rabin shekara ta goma sha biyar k'arni d'auki a yammacin Mongols: a gasar da Oirat gaggauta ya'ancan ayoyin wata daular da wa'adin har sau fiye da Chinese iyaka. Shi ya sa'an nan ka da Mongols a gabashin k'asashe, wadda take da zuriyar Genghis Khan, Dayan (1470-1543), ya gina bak'untaka da Mongolian guda. A zamanin da, d'an d'an Dayan, Altan Khan, a daga umurninsaa kan wanda Yake so daga bãyinsa k'arni tamanin da Mongols zuwa lamaismo tibetan. Da ya tashi daga Manciù a xvii k'arni Alamtacce a farkon sabuwar da aka ambata a tarihi da Mongols. Kafin a Manciù conquistassero Sin a 1644, da kabilar a gabashin Farfajiya Mongolia gane da mulki. A 1691 kuma Khalkha kabilan suka zauna da gindinsa Mongolia, fiye da ba a yi Oirat, su abokan gabanta kuma sun zama iyayengijinta Manciù. Da Oirat, wanda ya reconstituted mai k'arfi a jihar Zungaria da kwarin Ili ne a magadan galgajiya Mongolian Har ma galibin. Da yak'i da daular cino-manciù zauna har 1756-57, sa'an nan da nan. Da cino) igwa da manciù da dalilin da ya sa definitively Mongolian hari. Da ta ga zuriya Manciù tum, Mongolian aristocracy daga waje ya yi wa'azi Mongolia ta sami mulkin kanta, a yayin da farfajiya Mongolia sun zauna tare da Sin. Ga 'yan tarihi, ga farfajiya Mongolia da Mongolia.
Na adabi
Da na adabi Mongolian a Genghis Khan ya ragu har wa yau, bõne yasa (1) kuma hukunta bilik (1) da siffar fragmentary. Chronologically farkon takarda ujizoji ne da dutse na Genghis Khan na 1225. Haka kuma, har ma yana da epic da asalin Mongols da mulkokin Genghis Khan, Ögödei asiri tarihi na Mongols, zare a gundarin Mongolian a tsakiyar xiiith k'arni na 12, sabo da phonetic transcription Chinese, da ma'aikatan editorial na biyu da rabi na xiv k'arni na 12. Da Mongolian na adabi da xiv k'arni na 12, wanda jama'a da yawa monuments epigraphical da farko translations da Buddhist aiki daga Tibetan, da ba da taimako ga enrichment da Mongolian. (1) Wanda ya ce, "na zinariya." na Mongolian na adabi bala'i a XVII, wad'anda'arni na, da harshen biyu aiki mafi muhimmanci ne Button told oro na Lubdzandandzin na 1667 da tarihi na Mongolians na Sanang Sätsän na 1662. Daga ran sha k'arni na 12, shi ne na canon Tibetan kanjur, da kuma ba da gudunmawa daga yanzu Tibetan buddhist tanjur. Ya yi ta sha'awa kuma epic wurarensu da gunzar yak'i Gäsäi Khan, Tibetan tushensu, da fannin epic chinese. Daga ran sha k'arni na 12 zuwa k'arshen xix da Mongolian na adabi underwent da literary da linguistic a kasar Sin, aka fassara, adapted, reworked mafi shahara ayyukan classical Chinese daga tarihi na al'umman uku da kyaun Tatsuniyõyi ne na binciken Liao da mafarkin da Bahar Maliya daki. A farkon decades da chwa Alk'ur k'arni na 12 a Mongolia da ka bincike a maimakon literary harshen da daban dialects shakiyyai suke, haka kuma ci gaba da yawa autonomous literatures mai farin jini a hankali.
Sana'
Da intar sanin Mongolian hume yake samuwa nazarin architectural 4 sulhu ba ga xvii k'arni na 12, watau bayansa da tamanin da Mongols zuwa lamaismo (daga umurninsaa kan wanda Yake so daga bãyinsa k'arni na 12, wadda auna k'arfafa influences da Tibetan da Chinese. Haka kuma sharud sun gano ma a matalauta documentation na yi fenti da sculpture, kuke gõdhwa mai sana'addini da ciwo a k'irãzansu na influences. Mafi muhimmanci shi ne ya taka muhimmiyar rawar da Mongols a tsakanin gabas da yamma ta influences na Sin Yüan a hume iranica ilkhanid, mataimakin versa larabci da shutters a Chinese. A cikin wannan za ta labulen Mongolian d'and'ana bai ba su kawo ban sha'awa Kwabo #5,651 ne, muhimman ciniki. Bak'i mafi authentic d'and'ana Mongolia identifiable ne a cikin wasu kuke gõdhwa mai farin jini da sana'a, musamman ma a era na ado (3,023 k'awarsu.), da processing na hada karfe da janar inda cud'anya experiences rantsuwoyinku hume animalistica.